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[[File:Lie hør.mp3|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  
[[File:Lie hør.mp3|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  


'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taioan'oe|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as a writing system called [[Modern Taiwanese Language]] (MTL).  
'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as the [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] writing system, which we call MTL for "Modern Taiwanese Language".


Most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware that there exist several ways to write it down. MTL and [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] both derive from ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), which had over 100,000 users in the mid-20th century. While no single system has been widely adopted (whether romanized or in [[Harnji|Han characters]]), MTL is a very useful tool for learning Taiwanese. Most Taiwanese speakers may not be able to read any of these systems but will understand you better because you used it.
Most speakers of Taiwanese aren't aware that there are several writing systems for the language. ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), also known as Church Romanization, might be the most popular romanization, though the government is now promoting a similar system called ''[[Tâi-lô]]''. We're going to use MTL here because we found it very useful while studying Taiwanese at the [[Washington DC Taiwanese School]], and we think it could help you too. True, most Taiwanese speakers won't be able to read any of these systems, but they will probably understand you better because you learned one.


== Phonology ==
== How to make a syllable ==
We will first introduce all of the phonetic sounds of Taiwanese, using the [[MTL alphabet]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be less familiar. In the examples, we have underlined indicators (mainly ''f'', ''r'', ''x'', ''v'') that are silent, which we will explain later.
Let's learn how to write any syllable using the [[MLT alphabet]]. The three important parts of a syllable we will look at first are: starting consonant, vowel, and ending consonant. We will talk about tones later.  


=== Initial consonants ===
=== Initial consonants ===
Here are the [[List of all initial consonants in MTL|18 initial consonants in MTL]], which come at the beginning of the syllable.
A syllable can start with one of [[List of all initial consonants in MTL|18 initial consonants]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be more exotic. For now, you can just ignore the silent indicators (mainly ''f'', ''x'', ''r'', ''v'').


[[File:Initial consonants.mp3|thumb|none|Consonants]]
[[File:Initial_consonants.mp3|thumb|none|Consonants]]
[[File:conExp.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]
[[File:initial_consonant_examples.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]
{{Initial_consonants}}
{{Initial_consonants}}


The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
* The muddy ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced, meaning the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant.
* ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced: the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant
* The plain ''p'' and ''k'' (and ''t'') are unvoiced, not as aspirated as in English, but do have a distinct click or pop.
* ''p'', ''t'', ''k'' are unvoiced, crisp but not aspirated
* The aspirated consonants are composed of the plain symbol followed by ''h''. 
* ''ph'', ''th'', ''kh'', ''ch'', and ''zh'' are aspirated, having a strong burst of breath
 
Note that ''s'' and ''j'' appear twice: these are slightly different when followed by an ''i'' vs other vowels.


=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
A syllable in Taiwanese can't go without having a vowel. [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|This chart, ''Seven Tones of Taiwanese'']], shows how to write any vowel in any tone. For now, just look at the basic tone, and the five categories: simple, compound, plus three categories ending in nasals.


==== Single vowels ====
==== Single vowels ====
These are the pure vowel sounds ({{w|monophthong}}s).
These are the {{w|pure vowel}} sounds.
 
[[File:a, i, u, e, o, ø, m, ng.mp3|thumb|none|Vowels]]
[[File:ma, si, u, e, ho, tø, m, mng.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]


[[File:SimpleVowels.mp3]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| [[a]]  || {{x|ka}} || to bite
| [[a]]  || {{x|ma}} || also; to scold
|-  
|-  
| [[i]]  || {{x|h<u>v</u>i|hvi}} || ear
| [[i]]  || {{x|si}} || is; yes; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[u]]  || {{x|u}} || to have  
| [[u]]  || {{x|u}} || to have
|-  
|-  
| [[e]]  || {{x|ke}} || low
| [[e]]  || {{x|e}} || to be able to; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[o]]  || {{x|lo}} || road
| [[o]]  || {{x|ho}} || rain; to give; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[ø]]  || {{x|hø<u>r</u>|hør}} || good
| [[ø]]  || {{x|tø}} || at once; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[m]]  || {{x|m}} || no
| [[m]]  || {{x|m}} || not; will not
|-  
|-  
| [[ng]] || {{x|hng}} || far
| {{x|ng}} || {{x|mng}} || to ask
|}   
|}   


We saw ''m'' earlier as a consonant, but it can stand alone as a vowel. In fact, both ''m'' and ''{{x|ng}}'' are complete syllables and complete words. We will see them both again later as final consonants.
* We saw ''m-'' earlier as a consonant, but here it's the vowel.
* In fact, both ''m'' and ''ng'' are complete syllables and complete words.  
* We will see -''m'' and -''ng'' as nasal final consonants (NFCs).


==== Compound vowels ====
==== Compound vowels ====


These vowels are a combination of two (or three) pure vowel sounds.  
These vowels are a combination of multiple pure vowel sounds.  
 
[[File:CompoundVowels.mp3]]


[[File:ai, au, ia, iu, iø, iau, ui, oa, oe, oai.mp3]]
[[File:lai, au, ia, siu, biø, liau, ui, toa, hoe, phørhoai.mp3]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| ai || {{xl|lai}} || sharp  
| ai || {{x|lai}} || sharp  
|-  
|-  
| au || {{xl|au}} || back  
| au || {{x|au}} || back  
|-  
|-  
| ia || {{xl|ia}} || to spread  
| ia || {{x|ia}} || to spread  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|iu}} || {{xl|chviu}} || elephant
| {{x|iu}} || {{x|siu}} || receive; accept; ...
|-  
|-  
| iø || {{xl|kiøo}} || [[Kiøo (kauthofng)|bridge]]
| iø || {{x|biø}} || temple
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iau}} || {{xl|liau}} || material/stuff  
| {{x|iau}} || {{x|liau}} || material/stuff  
|-  
|-  
| ui || {{xl|ui}} || stomach  
| ui || {{x|ui}} || stomach  
|-  
|-  
| oa || {{xl|toa}} || big  
| oa || {{x|toa}} || big  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|oe}} || {{xl|hoe}} || meeting
| {{x|oe}} || {{x|hoe}} || meeting
|-  
|-  
| oai || {{xl|koaix}} || weird
| oai || {{x|hoai}} || bad; rotten. see ''{{x|phørhoai}}''
|}
|}


==== Nasal vowels ====
==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====


These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels  
Several vowels can be capped with a nasal final consonant (NFC), either -''m'', -''n'', or -''ng''.
have a nasal form. A ''[[v]]'' is placed in front of the vowel to designate it.  


[[File:FrontNasalV3.mp3]]
[[File:am, im, iam, an, in, un, ien, oan, ang, eng, ong, iang, iong.mp3]]
[[File:lam, akim, liam, ban, kin, tun, lien, goan, bang, teng, gong, liang, iong.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! Final !! Example !! Meaning
|-
| {{x|am}} || {{x|lam}} || to mix
|-
| im || {{x|akim}} || aunt
|-  
|-  
| va || {{xl|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
| {{x|iam}} || {{x|liam}} || to nag
|-  
|-  
| {{x|vi}} || [[hvi]] || ear
| {{x|an}} || {{x|ban}} || slow
|-  
|-  
| ve || {{xl|gve}} || stiff
| {{x|in}} || {{x|kin}} || near
|-  
|-  
| vo || {{xl|gvo}} || to comprehend
| {{x|un}} || {{x|tun}} || dull
|-  
|-  
| vai || {{xl|vai}} || to carry on back
| ien || {{x|lien}} || to practice
|-  
|-  
| vau || {{xl|gvau}} || [[liengvau|lotus root]]
| {{x|oan}} || {{x|goan}} || wish
|-  
|-  
| {{x|via}} || {{xl|thviaf}} || to listen
| ang || {{x|bang}} || dream
|-  
|-  
| {{x|viu}} || {{xl|sviu}} || to think
| {{x|eng}} || {{x|teng}} || hard
|-  
|-  
| viau || {{xl|gviaugviaw}} || itchy
| {{x|ong}} || {{x|gong}} || dumb
|-  
|-  
| voa || {{xl|voa}} || to exchange
| {{x|iang}} || {{x|liang}} || bright
|-  
|-  
| voai || {{xl|kvoaimngg}} || to close a door
| {{x|iong}} || {{x|iong}} || to use
|}
|}
Some pointers:
* '''ien''' (from '''ia''' + '''n''' = '''ian'''): used to sound like "yan", then "yen", now usually "en"
* '''eng''' (from '''e''' + '''ng'''): used to sound as written, now is a little more like "ieng", but not quite "ing"


==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====
==== Nasal vowels ====


The following ''finals'' are composed of vowels capped with ''m'', ''n'', or ''ng'' serving as a nasal final consonant (NFC).
These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels from the first two groups can be nasalized, indicated by the letter ''[[v]]'' (read like "you" in English but nasal), chosen because it looks like the Greek letter "nu" ({{wt|ν}}). The word for nose is ''{{x|phvi}}'', which also means "to smell".


[[File:RearNasal.mp3]]
[[File:Front_nasal_new.mp3]]
[[File:va, hvi, gve, kiaugvo, vai, liengvau, kvia, sviu, gviaw, voa, svoai.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! Final !! Example !! Meaning
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
|-
| {{x|am}} || {{x|lam}} || to mix
|-
| im || {{x|a'kim}} || aunt
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iam}} || {{xl|liam}} || to nag
| va || {{x|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
|-  
|-  
| {{x|an}} || {{xl|ban}} || slow
| {{x|vi}} || {{x|hvi}} || ear
|-  
|-  
| {{x|in}} || {{xl|kin}} || near
| ve || {{x|gve}} || stiff
|-  
|-  
| {{x|un}} || {{xl|tun}} || dull
| vo || {{x|kiaugvo}} || proud; arrogant; haughty
|-  
|-  
| ien || {{xl|lien}} || to practice
| vai || {{x|vai}} || to carry on back
|-  
|-  
| {{x|oan}} || {{xl|goan}} || wish
| vau || {{x|liengvau}} || lotus root
|-  
|-  
| ang || {{xl|bang}} || dream
| {{x|via}} || {{x|kvia}} || classifier for luggage, clothes, events
|-  
|-  
| {{x|eng}} || {{xl|teng}} || hard
| {{x|viu}} || {{x|sviu}} || to think
|-  
|-  
| {{x|ong}} || {{xl|gong}} || dumb
| viau || {{x|gviaw}} || itchy. see {{x|gviaugviaw}} (sensation of tickling; ticklish)
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iang}} || {{xl|liang}} || bright
| voa || {{x|voa}} || to exchange
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iong}} || {{xl|iong}} || to use
| voai || {{x|svoai}} || mango
|}
|}
Notes: ''ien'' is often spoken without the ''i''. Also, ''eng'' sounds similar to the first part of "English" (''{{XL|Engbuun}}'').
=== Syllabic structure ===
A complete syllable in Taiwanese requires only a vowel at the bare minimum. A syllable follows one of these two patterns:
* [consonant] + [nasal] '''vowel'''
* [consonant] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
The items in the [[koat'hoo|brackets]] are optional. The main takeaway is that a syllable won't have a ''v'' and another nasal consonant (''m'', ''n'', ''ng'') at the same time.
A word can be formed with one or more syllables, but two syllables is most typical. We will explain below how every syllable has a distinct tone.


=== Tones ===
=== Tones ===


Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by [[sviatiau|tone]]. Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for an English speaker. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.
Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by tone (e.g., all seven tones of ''{{x|si}}''). Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for beginners. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.


[[File:Tones1235784.mp3|thumb|none|''af'', ''ar'', ''ax'', ''aa'', ''a'', ''ah'', ''aq'']]
As you may have noticed from the ''Seven Tones'' chart, there are five long tones and two short tones:
* ''f'', ''x'' and ''r'' are silent tone indicators for long tones
* short tones always end with a stop letter that tells both consonant and pitch


Taiwanese has seven tones: five long tones and two short tones.
[[File:af,_a,_ax,_ar,_aa,_ah,_aq.mp3|thumb|none|{{x|af}}, a, ax, {{x|ar}}, aa, {{x|ah}}, {{x|aq}}]]


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example !! Animal
|-  
|-  
| 1 || High || level (55 or 44) || [[f]] (silent) || {{x|khaf}} (''leg''; ''foot'')
| 1 || high || level (55 or 44) || [[f]] (silent) || {{x|khaf}} (''leg''; ''foot'') || {{x|say}} (''lion'')
|-  
|-  
| 2 || Shouting || sharply downward (51) || [[r]] (silent)|| {{x|ar}} (仔)
| 7 || basic || mid-level (33) || default || {{x|toa}} (''big'') || {{x|chviu}} (''elephant'')
|-  
|-  
| 3 || Low Falling || somewhat downward (31) || [[x]] (silent)|| {{x|pax}} (''leopard'')
| 3 || low falling || somewhat downward (31) || [[x]] (silent) || {{x|khax}} (''to knock'') || {{x|pax}} (''leopard'')
|-  
|-  
| 5 || Curving || mid, downward, then upward (24) || doubling of vowel || {{x|gaau}} (''extraordinary'')  
| 2 || shouting || sharply downward (51) || [[r]] (silent)|| {{x|ar}} ({{wt|仔}}) || {{x|hor}} (''tiger'')
|-  
|-  
| 7 || Basic || mid-level (33) || default || {{x|toa}}
| 5 || curving || mid, downward, up (214) || doubling of vowel || {{x|gaau}} (''extraordinary'') || {{x|hiim}} (''bear'')
|-  
|-  
| 8 || Short high || (5ʔ) || ends with ''h'', ''p'', ''t'' or ''k''  || {{x|ah}} (''a box'')
| 8 || short high || (5ʔ) || ends with ''h'', ''p'', ''t'' or ''k''  || {{x|ah}} (''a box'') || {{x|lok}} (''deer'')
|-  
|-  
| 4 || Short low || (3ʔ) || ends with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'' or ''g'' || {{x|aq}} (''a duck'')
| 4 || short low || (3ʔ) || ends with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'' or ''g'' || {{x|aq}} (''a duck'') || {{x|piq}} (''snapping turtle'')
|}   
|}   
[[File:say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq.mp3|thumb|none|say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq]]


The letters ''f'', ''r'' and ''x'' are silent tone indicators for long tones. Short tones always end with a stop (the ending letter tells both consonant and tone).
==== Short tones ====
Let's look at the [[short tones]] first:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Pitch !! -h  !! -p !! -t !! -k
|-
| 8. high || {{x|ciah}} (''to eat'') || {{x|zap}} (''ten'') || {{x|lat}} (''strength'') || {{x|hak}} (''study'')
|-
| 4. low || {{x|phaq}} (''to hit'') || {{x|ciab}} (''juice'') || {{x|pad}} (''eight'') || {{x|kag}} (''horn'')
|}
 
* high short tones end with ''h'' ({{w|glottal stop}}), ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'', which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant
* low short tones end with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'', and ''g'', which are the same stops as above, but signal the vowel is low pitch
* ''{{x|iet}}'' and ''{{x|ek}}'', the short tones of ''ien'' and ''eng'', may sound more like ''et'' and ''iek''


==== Long tones ====
==== Long tones ====
Here are some common examples of the [[long tone]]s:
Here are some common examples of the [[long tone]]s:


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable sortable"  
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning  
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| High || {{xl|hiaf}} || there
| 1. high || {{x|ciaf}} || here
|-
| Shouting || {{xl|zar}} || early
|-
| Low Falling || {{xl|zhaix}} || vegetable
|-  
|-  
| Curving || {{xl|hii}} || fish
| 7. basic || {{x|si}} || is
|-  
|-  
| Basic || {{xl|si}} || is
| 3. low-falling || {{x|khix}} || to go
|}
 
The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, normally its last letter is repeated. But when there is an ''a'', it is the one repeated, even when it doesn't sit at the very end of the vowel. For example: {{x|gaau}}, {{xl|jidthaau}}, {{xl|na'aau}}.
 
==== Short tones ====
Here are some examples of the [[short tone]]s:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Pitch !! -h  !! -p !! -t !! -k
|-  
|-  
| high || {{xl|ciah}} (''to eat'') || {{xl|ap}} (''a box'') || {{xl|lat}} (''strength'') || {{xl|bak}} (''ink'')
| 2. shouting || {{x|goar}} || I; me
|-  
|-  
| low || {{xl|phaq}} (''to hit'') || {{xl|ciab}} (''juice'') || {{xl|kad}} (''knot'') || {{xl|kag}} (''horn'')
| 5. curving || {{x|ee}} || possessive particle
|}
|}


The ending letter tells both consonant and pitch. The high short tones end with ''h'' ({{w|glottal stop}}), ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'', which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant. The low short tones end with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'', and ''g'', which are the same stops, respectively.
The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, double the ''a'' if present, or else the last vowel letter. For example: ''{{x|cviaa}}'', ''{{x|laai}}'', ''{{x|ngg}}''.


==== Special vowels ====
===== Special vowels =====
For certain vowels in certain tones, there are a few substitutions/shortcuts: five for the shouting-out tone, plus two in the high tone. There is also a shortcut for the curving tone of ''ø''.
For certain vowels in certain tones, some ornamental substitutions/shortcuts are used. Refer to the [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|''Seven Tones'']] chart.
 
* '''{{x|y}}''',  '''{{x|w}}''': [[high tone]] of '''i''' and '''u'''
[[File:specialVowl.mp3|thumb|none|the five special shouting-tone vowels: ''ae'',
* '''{{x|ie}}''', '''{{x|uo}}''', '''{{x|ea}}''': [[shouting tone]] of '''i''', '''u''', '''e'''
''ie'', ''uo'', ''ea'', ''ao'']]
* '''{{x|ae}}''', '''{{x|ao}}''': shortcuts for "a + ie" and "a + uo"
[[File:special_vowels_high.mp3|thumb|none|two high-tone shortcuts (''y'', ''w'') and curving tone of ''ø'' (øo)]]
* '''{{x|øo}}''': shortcut for "øø"
* None of these apply with NFCs except: '''{{x|ym}}''', '''{{x|yn}}''', '''{{x|wn}}'''


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! Basic <br>Vowel !! Tonal <br>Vowel !! Special vowel<br>(shortcut)  !! Example || Meaning
! Syll. Tail !! Shortcut !! Example || Meaning
|-  
|-  
| ai  || air || ae  || {{xl|hae}} || sea
| if, ifm, ifn || {{x|y}}, {{x|ym}}, {{x|yn}} || {{x|ty}}, {{x|kym}}, {{x|cyn}} || pig, gold, very
|-  
|-  
| i  || ir || {{x|ie}} || {{xl|lie}} || you
| uf, ufn || {{x|w}}, {{x|wn}} || {{x|titw}}, {{x|zhwn}} || spider, springtime
|-  
|-  
| u  || ur || {{x|uo}}  || {{xl|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
| ir || {{x|ie}}  || {{x|lie}} || you; ...
|-  
|-  
| e  || er || {{x|ea}}  || {{xl|bea}} || horse
| ur || {{x|uo}}  || {{x|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
|-  
|-  
| au  || aur || {{x|ao}}  || {{xl|kao}} || dog
| er || {{x|ea}}  || {{x|boea}} || tail
|-  
|-  
| i  || if || {{x|y}}  || {{xl|y}} || he / she / it
| air || {{x|ae}}  || {{x|hae}} || sea
|-  
|-  
| u  || uf || w || {{xl|wtiu}} || universe
| aur || {{x|ao}}  || {{x|kao}} || dog. nine
|-  
|-  
| ø  || øø || {{x|øo}} || {{xl|kiøo}} || bridge
| øø || {{x|øo}} || {{x|kiøo}} || bridge; eggplant
|}
|}


Now that you've learned all the vowels and the tones, you might be interested in what we call a "final". This is the rear part of the syllable that includes everything except the initial consonant. So, in MTL, the final uniquely spells out the vowel, tone, and any consonant endings.
=== Syllable structure ===
A syllable in Taiwanese is either:
* [initial] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
* [initial] + [v] + '''vowel'''
Anything in square brackets is optional. This means:
* a vowel is always required
* ''v'', ''-m'', ''-n'', and ''-ng'' are mutually exclusive


There are about 70 commonly-used finals if you ignore the different tones. A complete table of all the finals in all tones is given [[Table of all finals in MTL|here]].
Also, we almost never find more than one nasal:
* e.g. ''{{x|man}}'' and ''{{x|mang}}'' don't exist (but ''{{x|ban}}'' and ''{{x|bang}}'' do exist)
* the only exceptions are the various tones of ''{{x|mng}}'' and ''{{x|nng}}''


==== Tone sandhi ====
== Tone sandhi ==
[[File:Tone Circles.png|right|frame|The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.]]
[[File:Tone Circles.png|right|frame|The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.]]


The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This is referred to as [[tone sandhi]], which is extensive in Taiwanese.
The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This process is generally called [[tone sandhi]] ("sandhi" is from the Sanskrit word for "joining") and in Taiwanese the rules for it are extensive.


Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): ''{{x|aq}}''. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ''{{x|ar}}'', the tone becomes high-short: ''{{x|ah'ar}}''.  
Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): ''{{x|aq}}''. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ''{{x|ar}}'', the tone becomes high-short: ''{{x|ah'ar}}''.  
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* ''cit'' (one) + ''sud'' (a bit) + ''ar'' = ''{{x|cidsut'ar}}'' (a little amount of something)
* ''cit'' (one) + ''sud'' (a bit) + ''ar'' = ''{{x|cidsut'ar}}'' (a little amount of something)


Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in ''cidsut'ar png'' (a bit of rice), the ''ar'' changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ''{{x|ciah}} cidsut'ar png'', the verb ''ciah'' (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.  
Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in ''cidsut'ar {{x|png}}'' (a bit of rice), the ''ar'' changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ''{{x|ciah}} cidsut'ar png'', the verb ''ciah'' (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.  


You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.
You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.


=== Three special symbols ===
== Special punctuation marks ==
 
==== Apostrophe (') ====


When two syllables are put together, an [[apostrophe]] may be used to indicate a syllable boundary if there's any ambiguity. The rule in MTL is that letters
=== Apostrophe (') ===
are grouped into a syllable starting from the right. Here's one case where a consonant could be part of the first or second syllable.


''{{x|Okix}}'', meaning "black mole", comes from ''{{x|of}}'' (烏; "black") plus ''{{x|kix}}'' (痣;  "mole"). We simply take the [[sandhi]]-modified first syllable (''of'' -> ''o'') and follow it by the second syllable, to get ''okix''. Reading this word, we know the longest syllable starting from the right is ''kix''.
When two syllables are put together, sometimes one letter might appear to be connected to the right syllable when it shouldn't be. The apostrophe is used to remove the ambiguity. For example:


But, there are two other syllables we could combine to get the same result. If we combine ''{{x|og}}'' (惡; "evil") and ''{{x|ix}}'' (意; "intention") without using an apostrophe, we would also get ''okix''. Clearly, we don't want this. It looks like the ''k'' belongs with the second vowel ''i'' instead of ''o''.
* {{x|of}} (烏; "black") + {{x|kix}} (痣;  "mole") = o'kix = {{x|okix}}
* {{x|og}} (惡; "evil") + {{x|ix}} (意; "intention") = {{x|ok'ix}}


That's where the apostrophe comes in to save the day. By writing ''{{x|ok'ix}}'' ''with'' an apostrophe, we keep "evil intention", or "malice", distinct from the harmless ''okix''.
In MTL, we group the letters starting from the right into the longest syllable. So reading ''okix'', the second syllable is ''kix''. Then the first syllable is ''o''. There's no need to write ''o'kix''.


==== Hyphen (-) ====
If you drop the apostrophe from ''ok'ix'', it would be ''okix'', so the apostrophe needs to stay.


A [[hyphen]] is used to join two, or more isolated words to
=== Hyphen (-) ===
make a new compound word with its own meaning. For example:
* [[File:Taioaan-laang.mp3]] {{XL|Taioaan}} + laang = [[Taioaan-laang]] (Taiwanese person)
* [[File:Bykog-kongbiin.mp3]] {{XL|Bykog}} + {{x|kongbiin}} = [[Bykog-kongbiin]] (American citizen).


When reading these hyphenated words, the syllable directly
A hyphen is used to join two, or more isolated words to
before the hyphen must undergo tone change.
make a new compound word with its own meaning. When reading a hyphenated word, the syllable just before the hyphen should change tone. For example: {{XL|Taioaan}} + laang = {{XL|Taioaan-laang}} (Taiwanese person)
[[File:Taioaan, Taioaan-laang.mp3]]
The last syllable of ''Taioaan'' changes tone when spoken, so the compound word sounds like ''Taioanlaang''.


==== Backquote (`) ====
=== Backquote (`) ===


When a word contains a [[backquote]], all the syllables after  
When a word contains a [[backquote]], all the syllables after  
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Example:
Example:


* [[File:Kviaf`sie.mp3]] [[kviaf`sie]] ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  
* [[File:Kviaf`sie.mp3]] {{x|kviaf`sie}} ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  


* [[File:Kviasie.mp3]] [[kviasie]] ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.
* [[File:Kviasie.mp3]] {{x|kviasie}} ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.


== Further study ==
== Next steps ==
* [[Greeting Phrases in Taiwanese]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Taiwanese-English Dictionaries]]
* [[Introduction to Taiwanese Vocabulary]]
* [[Frequently-Used Syllables in Frequently-Used Words of Taiwanese Hokkien|Frequently-Used Syllables in Frequently-Used Words]]


== External links ==
== External links ==
* [http://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html HTML version]
* [https://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html ''A Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''], version 1.0: 2017
* [https://wdcts.org/ WDCTS] - MLT Introduction, Useful Handout, Videos & References. (in Chinese)
* Modern Literal Taiwanese Foundation (MLTF). [https://learntaiwanese.org/english/mtl.html Modern Literal Taiwanese (MLT) Handbook]
* {{Textbook_1990}}


[[Category:Getting started]]
[[Category:Getting started]]
[[Category:Modern Literal Taiwanese]]

Latest revision as of 16:09, 25 July 2024

"Hello" in Taiwanese, written Lie hør!

Lie hør! Taiwanese is a beautiful and musical language spoken in Taiwan and by Taiwanese people around the world. This Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as the Modern Literal Taiwanese writing system, which we call MTL for "Modern Taiwanese Language".

Most speakers of Taiwanese aren't aware that there are several writing systems for the language. Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ), also known as Church Romanization, might be the most popular romanization, though the government is now promoting a similar system called Tâi-lô. We're going to use MTL here because we found it very useful while studying Taiwanese at the Washington DC Taiwanese School, and we think it could help you too. True, most Taiwanese speakers won't be able to read any of these systems, but they will probably understand you better because you learned one.

How to make a syllable

Let's learn how to write any syllable using the MLT alphabet. The three important parts of a syllable we will look at first are: starting consonant, vowel, and ending consonant. We will talk about tones later.

Initial consonants

A syllable can start with one of 18 initial consonants. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be more exotic. For now, you can just ignore the silent indicators (mainly f, x, r, v).

Consonants
Examples
MTL Approx. Example Meaning
p spin papaf father
ph pin phaq to hit
m Mimi mi noodle
b mumble baq meat
t stem tit straight
th Thomas theh to take
n neat nii year
l lima laang person
k ski kaf to add
kh key khix to go
h heap hii fish
g gaggle go five
c(i) gee ciaf here
ch(i) cheese chiaf car
s she / saw si is; yes
j vision / zeta jit sun; day
z yards zef this
zh Tsai (Ts'ai) zhaix vegetable

The p vs. b and k vs. g may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from muddy to plain to aspirated.

  • b and g are voiced: the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant
  • p, t, k are unvoiced, crisp but not aspirated
  • ph, th, kh, ch, and zh are aspirated, having a strong burst of breath

Vowels

A syllable in Taiwanese can't go without having a vowel. This chart, Seven Tones of Taiwanese, shows how to write any vowel in any tone. For now, just look at the basic tone, and the five categories: simple, compound, plus three categories ending in nasals.

Single vowels

These are the pure vowel sounds.

Vowels
Examples
MTL Example Meaning
a ma also; to scold
i si is; yes; ...
u u to have
e e to be able to; ...
o ho rain; to give; ...
ø tø at once; ...
m m not; will not
ng mng to ask
  • We saw m- earlier as a consonant, but here it's the vowel.
  • In fact, both m and ng are complete syllables and complete words.
  • We will see -m and -ng as nasal final consonants (NFCs).

Compound vowels

These vowels are a combination of multiple pure vowel sounds.

MTL Example Meaning
ai lai sharp
au au back
ia ia to spread
iu siu receive; accept; ...
iø biø temple
iau liau material/stuff
ui ui stomach
oa toa big
oe hoe meeting
oai hoai bad; rotten. see phørhoai

Vowel plus nasal final consonant

Several vowels can be capped with a nasal final consonant (NFC), either -m, -n, or -ng.

Final Example Meaning
am lam to mix
im akim aunt
iam liam to nag
an ban slow
in kin near
un tun dull
ien lien to practice
oan goan wish
ang bang dream
eng teng hard
ong gong dumb
iang liang bright
iong iong to use

Some pointers:

  • ien (from ia + n = ian): used to sound like "yan", then "yen", now usually "en"
  • eng (from e + ng): used to sound as written, now is a little more like "ieng", but not quite "ing"

Nasal vowels

These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels from the first two groups can be nasalized, indicated by the letter v (read like "you" in English but nasal), chosen because it looks like the Greek letter "nu" (ν). The word for nose is phvi, which also means "to smell".

MTL Example Meaning
va va filling (for dumplings etc.)
vi hvi ear
ve gve stiff
vo kiaugvo proud; arrogant; haughty
vai vai to carry on back
vau liengvau lotus root
via kvia classifier for luggage, clothes, events
viu sviu to think
viau gviaw itchy. see gviaugviaw (sensation of tickling; ticklish)
voa voa to exchange
voai svoai mango

Tones

Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by tone (e.g., all seven tones of si). Learning to speak and hear the tones of Taiwanese correctly is often difficult for beginners. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.

As you may have noticed from the Seven Tones chart, there are five long tones and two short tones:

  • f, x and r are silent tone indicators for long tones
  • short tones always end with a stop letter that tells both consonant and pitch
af, a, ax, ar, aa, ah, aq
# Tones Description MTL Example Animal
1 high level (55 or 44) f (silent) khaf (leg; foot) say (lion)
7 basic mid-level (33) default toa (big) chviu (elephant)
3 low falling somewhat downward (31) x (silent) khax (to knock) pax (leopard)
2 shouting sharply downward (51) r (silent) ar (仔) hor (tiger)
5 curving mid, downward, up (214) doubling of vowel gaau (extraordinary) hiim (bear)
8 short high (5ʔ) ends with h, p, t or k ah (a box) lok (deer)
4 short low (3ʔ) ends with q, b, d or g aq (a duck) piq (snapping turtle)
say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq

Short tones

Let's look at the short tones first:

Pitch -h -p -t -k
8. high ciah (to eat) zap (ten) lat (strength) hak (study)
4. low phaq (to hit) ciab (juice) pad (eight) kag (horn)
  • high short tones end with h (glottal stop), p, t and k, which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant
  • low short tones end with q, b, d, and g, which are the same stops as above, but signal the vowel is low pitch
  • iet and ek, the short tones of ien and eng, may sound more like et and iek

Long tones

Here are some common examples of the long tones:

Tone Example Meaning
1. high ciaf here
7. basic si is
3. low-falling khix to go
2. shouting goar I; me
5. curving ee possessive particle

The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, double the a if present, or else the last vowel letter. For example: cviaa, laai, ngg.

Special vowels

For certain vowels in certain tones, some ornamental substitutions/shortcuts are used. Refer to the Seven Tones chart.

Syll. Tail Shortcut Example Meaning
if, ifm, ifn y, ym, yn ty, kym, cyn pig, gold, very
uf, ufn w, wn titw, zhwn spider, springtime
ir ie lie you; ...
ur uo kuo (of time) long
er ea boea tail
air ae hae sea
aur ao kao dog. nine
øø øo kiøo bridge; eggplant

Syllable structure

A syllable in Taiwanese is either:

  • [initial] + vowel + [nasal final consonant]
  • [initial] + [v] + vowel

Anything in square brackets is optional. This means:

  • a vowel is always required
  • v, -m, -n, and -ng are mutually exclusive

Also, we almost never find more than one nasal:

  • e.g. man and mang don't exist (but ban and bang do exist)
  • the only exceptions are the various tones of mng and nng

Tone sandhi

The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.

The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This process is generally called tone sandhi ("sandhi" is from the Sanskrit word for "joining") and in Taiwanese the rules for it are extensive.

Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): aq. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ar, the tone becomes high-short: ah'ar.

More examples:

  • jit (sun) + thaau (head) = jidthaau (the sun)
  • cit (one) + sud (a bit) + ar = cidsut'ar (a little amount of something)

Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in cidsut'ar png (a bit of rice), the ar changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ciah cidsut'ar png, the verb ciah (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.

You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.

Special punctuation marks

Apostrophe (')

When two syllables are put together, sometimes one letter might appear to be connected to the right syllable when it shouldn't be. The apostrophe is used to remove the ambiguity. For example:

  • of (烏; "black") + kix (痣; "mole") = o'kix = okix
  • og (惡; "evil") + ix (意; "intention") = ok'ix

In MTL, we group the letters starting from the right into the longest syllable. So reading okix, the second syllable is kix. Then the first syllable is o. There's no need to write o'kix.

If you drop the apostrophe from ok'ix, it would be okix, so the apostrophe needs to stay.

Hyphen (-)

A hyphen is used to join two, or more isolated words to make a new compound word with its own meaning. When reading a hyphenated word, the syllable just before the hyphen should change tone. For example: Taioaan + laang = Taioaan-laang (Taiwanese person) The last syllable of Taioaan changes tone when spoken, so the compound word sounds like Taioanlaang.

Backquote (`)

When a word contains a backquote, all the syllables after it are accented in a weaker, lower tone -- either a low-falling tone or a low stop. The tone of the syllable before the backquote remains unchanged.

Example:

  • kviaf`sie ((v.) to freak someone out) - kviaf keeps its high tone but sie is pronounced with a weakened low tone.
  • kviasie ((adj.) scared of death) – kviaf is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while sie is pronounced as a shouting tone. Kiasi is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.

Next steps

External links

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