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[[File:Lie hør.ogg|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  
[[File:Lie hør.mp3|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  


'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taioan'oe|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as a writing system called [[Modern Taiwanese Language]] (MTL).  
'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as the [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] writing system, which we call MTL for "Modern Taiwanese Language".


Most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware that there exist several ways to write it down. MTL and [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] both derive from ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), which had over 100,000 users in the mid-20th century. While no single system has been widely adopted (whether romanized or in [[Harnji|Han characters]]), MTL is a very useful tool for learning Taiwanese. Most Taiwanese speakers may not be able to read any of these systems but will understand you better because you used it.
Most speakers of Taiwanese aren't aware that there are several writing systems for the language. ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), also known as Church Romanization, might be the most popular romanization, though the government is now promoting a similar system called ''[[Tâi-lô]]''. We're going to use MTL here because we found it very useful while studying Taiwanese at the [[Washington DC Taiwanese School]], and we think it could help you too. True, most Taiwanese speakers won't be able to read any of these systems, but they will probably understand you better because you learned one.


== Phonology ==
== How to make a syllable ==
We will first introduce all of the phonetic sounds of Taiwanese, using the [[Taiwanese alphabet]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be less familiar. In the examples, we have underlined tone indicators that are silent, which we will explain later.
Let's learn how to write any syllable using the [[MLT alphabet]]. The three important parts of a syllable we will look at first are: starting consonant, vowel, and ending consonant. We will talk about tones later.  


=== Consonants ===
=== Initial consonants ===
Here are the 18 initial consonants in MTL:
A syllable can start with one of [[List of all initial consonants in MTL|18 initial consonants]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be more exotic. For now, you can just ignore the silent indicators (mainly ''f'', ''x'', ''r'', ''v'').


[[File:conExp.ogg]]
[[File:Initial_consonants.mp3|thumb|none|Consonants]]
[[File:initial_consonant_examples.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]
{{Initial_consonants}}
{{Initial_consonants}}


The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
* The muddy ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced, meaning the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant.
* ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced: the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant
* The plain ''p'' and ''k'' (and ''t'') are unvoiced, not as aspirated as in English, but do have a distinct click or pop.
* ''p'', ''t'', ''k'' are unvoiced, crisp but not aspirated
* The aspirated consonants are composed of the plain symbol followed by ''h''. 
* ''ph'', ''th'', ''kh'', ''ch'', and ''zh'' are aspirated, having a strong burst of breath
 
Note that ''s'' and ''j'' appear twice: these are slightly different when followed by an ''i'' vs other vowels.


=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
A syllable in Taiwanese can't go without having a vowel. [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|This chart, ''Seven Tones of Taiwanese'']], shows how to write any vowel in any tone. For now, just look at the basic tone, and the five categories: simple, compound, plus three categories ending in nasals.


==== Single vowels ====
==== Single vowels ====
These are the pure vowel sounds ({{w|monophthong}}s).
These are the {{w|pure vowel}} sounds.
 
[[File:a, i, u, e, o, ø, m, ng.mp3|thumb|none|Vowels]]
[[File:ma, si, u, e, ho, tø, m, mng.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]


[[File:SimpleVowels.ogg]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| [[a]]  || {{xl|ka}} || to bite
| [[a]]  || {{x|ma}} || also; to scold
|-  
|-  
| [[i]]  || {{xl|h<u>v</u>i|hvi}} || ear
| [[i]]  || {{x|si}} || is; yes; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[u]]  || {{xl|u}} || to have  
| [[u]]  || {{x|u}} || to have
|-  
|-  
| [[e]]  || {{xl|ke}} || low
| [[e]]  || {{x|e}} || to be able to; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[o]]  || {{xl|lo}} || road
| [[o]]  || {{x|ho}} || rain; to give; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[ø]]  || {{xl|hø<u>r</u>|hør}} || good
| [[ø]]  || {{x|tø}} || at once; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[m]]  || {{xl|m}} || no
| [[m]]  || {{x|m}} || not; will not
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|ng}} || {{xl|hng}} || far
| {{x|ng}} || {{x|mng}} || to ask
|}   
|}   


We saw ''m'' earlier as a consonant, but it can stand alone as a vowel. In fact, both ''m'' and ''ng'' can be an entire word. We will see them both again later as final consonants.
* We saw ''m-'' earlier as a consonant, but here it's the vowel.
* In fact, both ''m'' and ''ng'' are complete syllables and complete words.  
* We will see -''m'' and -''ng'' as nasal final consonants (NFCs).


==== Compound vowels ====
==== Compound vowels ====


These vowels are a combination of two (or three) pure vowel sounds.  
These vowels are a combination of multiple pure vowel sounds.  
 
[[File:CompoundVowels.ogg]]


[[File:ai, au, ia, iu, iø, iau, ui, oa, oe, oai.mp3]]
[[File:lai, au, ia, siu, biø, liau, ui, toa, hoe, phørhoai.mp3]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| ai || {{xl|lai}} || sharp  
| ai || {{x|lai}} || sharp  
|-  
|-  
| au || {{xl|au}} || back  
| au || {{x|au}} || back  
|-  
|-  
| ia || {{xl|ia}} || to spread  
| ia || {{x|ia}} || to spread  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|iu}} || {{xl|chviu}} || elephant
| {{x|iu}} || {{x|siu}} || receive; accept; ...
|-  
|-  
| iø || {{xl|kiøo}} || [[Kiøo (kauthofng)|bridge]]
| iø || {{x|biø}} || temple
|-  
|-  
| iau || {{xl|liau}} || material/stuff  
| {{x|iau}} || {{x|liau}} || material/stuff  
|-  
|-  
| ui || {{xl|ui}} || stomach  
| ui || {{x|ui}} || stomach  
|-  
|-  
| oa || {{xl|toa}} || big  
| oa || {{x|toa}} || big  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|oe}} || {{xl|hoe}} || meeting  
| {{x|oe}} || {{x|hoe}} || meeting
|-  
|-  
| øe  || [[øe]] || to be able to (dialectal)
| oai || {{x|hoai}} || bad; rotten. see ''{{x|phørhoai}}''
|-
| oai  || {{xl|koaix}} || weird 
|}
|}


==== Nasal vowels ====
==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====


These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels  
Several vowels can be capped with a nasal final consonant (NFC), either -''m'', -''n'', or -''ng''.
have a nasal form. A ''v'' is placed in front of the vowel to designate it.  


[[File:FrontNasalV3.ogg]]
[[File:am, im, iam, an, in, un, ien, oan, ang, eng, ong, iang, iong.mp3]]
[[File:lam, akim, liam, ban, kin, tun, lien, goan, bang, teng, gong, liang, iong.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! Final !! Example !! Meaning
|-
| {{x|am}} || {{x|lam}} || to mix
|-
| im || {{x|akim}} || aunt
|-  
|-  
| va || {{xl|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
| {{x|iam}} || {{x|liam}} || to nag
|-  
|-  
| vi || [[hvi]] || ear
| {{x|an}} || {{x|ban}} || slow
|-  
|-  
| ve || {{xl|gve}} || stiff
| {{x|in}} || {{x|kin}} || near
|-  
|-  
| vo || {{xl|gvo}} || to comprehend
| {{x|un}} || {{x|tun}} || dull
|-  
|-  
| vai || {{xl|vai}} || to carry on back
| ien || {{x|lien}} || to practice
|-  
|-  
| vau || {{xl|gvau}} || [[liengvau|lotus root]]
| {{x|oan}} || {{x|goan}} || wish
|-  
|-  
| via || {{xl|thviaf}} || to listen
| ang || {{x|bang}} || dream
|-  
|-  
| viu || {{xl|sviu}} || to think
| {{x|eng}} || {{x|teng}} || hard
|-  
|-  
| viau || {{xl|gviaugviaw}} || itchy
| {{x|ong}} || {{x|gong}} || dumb
|-  
|-  
| voa || {{xl|voa}} || to exchange
| {{x|iang}} || {{x|liang}} || bright
|-  
|-  
| voai || {{xl|kvoaimngg}} || to close a door
| {{x|iong}} || {{x|iong}} || to use
|}
|}
Some pointers:
* '''ien''' (from '''ia''' + '''n''' = '''ian'''): used to sound like "yan", then "yen", now usually "en"
* '''eng''' (from '''e''' + '''ng'''): used to sound as written, now is a little more like "ieng", but not quite "ing"


==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====
==== Nasal vowels ====


The following ''finals'' are composed of vowels capped with the nasal ''m'', ''n'' and ''ng'' as final consonants.
These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels from the first two groups can be nasalized, indicated by the letter ''[[v]]'' (read like "you" in English but nasal), chosen because it looks like the Greek letter "nu" ({{wt|ν}}). The word for nose is ''{{x|phvi}}'', which also means "to smell".


[[File:RearNasal.ogg]]
[[File:Front_nasal_new.mp3]]
[[File:va, hvi, gve, kiaugvo, vai, liengvau, kvia, sviu, gviaw, voa, svoai.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
|-
| -am || {{xl|lam}} || to mix
|-
| -im || {{xl|a'kim}} (akim) || aunt
|-  
|-  
| -iam || {{xl|liam}} || to nag
| va || {{x|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
|-  
|-  
| -an || {{xl|ban}} || slow
| {{x|vi}} || {{x|hvi}} || ear
|-  
|-  
| -in || {{xl|kin}} || near
| ve || {{x|gve}} || stiff
|-  
|-  
| -un || {{xl|tun}} || dull
| vo || {{x|kiaugvo}} || proud; arrogant; haughty
|-  
|-  
| -ien || {{xl|lien}} || to practice
| vai || {{x|vai}} || to carry on back
|-  
|-  
| -oan || {{xl|goan}} || wish
| vau || {{x|liengvau}} || lotus root
|-  
|-  
| -ang || {{xl|bang}} || dream
| {{x|via}} || {{x|kvia}} || classifier for luggage, clothes, events
|-  
|-  
| -eng || {{xl|teng}} || hard
| {{x|viu}} || {{x|sviu}} || to think
|-  
|-  
| -ong || {{xl|gong}} || dumb
| viau || {{x|gviaw}} || itchy. see {{x|gviaugviaw}} (sensation of tickling; ticklish)
|-  
|-  
| -iang || {{xl|liang}} || bright
| voa || {{x|voa}} || to exchange
|-  
|-  
| -iong || {{xl|iong}} || to use
| voai || {{x|svoai}} || mango
|}
|}


=== Syllabic structure ===
=== Tones ===
A syllable in Taiwanese follows one of these two patterns:
* [consonant] + [nasal] '''vowel'''
* [consonant] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
 
As a bare minimum, only a vowel is required. The items in the [[koat'hoo|brackets]] are optional.


A word can be formed with one or more syllables, but two syllables is most typical.
Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by tone (e.g., all seven tones of ''{{x|si}}''). Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for beginners. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.


=== Tones ===
As you may have noticed from the ''Seven Tones'' chart, there are five long tones and two short tones:
* ''f'', ''x'' and ''r'' are silent tone indicators for long tones
* short tones always end with a stop letter that tells both consonant and pitch


Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by [[sviatiau|tone]]. Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for an English speaker since there are no tones in English. With practice you will be able to hear and speak it. Taiwanese has seven tones (Mandarin has four). Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand it when you pronounce it.
[[File:af,_a,_ax,_ar,_aa,_ah,_aq.mp3|thumb|none|{{x|af}}, a, ax, {{x|ar}}, aa, {{x|ah}}, {{x|aq}}]]


[[File:Tones1235784.ogg]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
{| class="wikitable"
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example !! Animal
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example (a-)
|-  
|-  
| 1 || High || high level tone || [[f]] || {{xl|af}}
| 1 || high || level (55 or 44) || [[f]] (silent) || {{x|khaf}} (''leg''; ''foot'') || {{x|say}} (''lion'')
|-  
|-  
| 2 || Shouting || start high, then sharp downward || [[r]] || {{xl|ar}}
| 7 || basic || mid-level (33) || default || {{x|toa}} (''big'') || {{x|chviu}} (''elephant'')
|-  
|-  
| 3 || Low Falling || start mid then downward tone || [[x]] || ax
| 3 || low falling || somewhat downward (31) || [[x]] (silent) || {{x|khax}} (''to knock'') || {{x|pax}} (''leopard'')
|-  
|-  
| 5 || Curving || start mid level then down and up  || doubling of vowel || aa
| 2 || shouting || sharply downward (51) || [[r]] (silent)|| {{x|ar}} ({{wt|仔}}) || {{x|hor}} (''tiger'')
|-  
|-  
| 7 || Basic || mid level tone || default || a
| 5 || curving || mid, downward, up (214) || doubling of vowel || {{x|gaau}} (''extraordinary'') || {{x|hiim}} (''bear'')
|-  
|-  
| 8 || Short high || short high tone || ends with h, p, t or k  || {{xl|ah}}, {{xl|ap}}, at, ak
| 8 || short high || (5ʔ) || ends with ''h'', ''p'', ''t'' or ''k'' || {{x|ah}} (''a box'') || {{x|lok}} (''deer'')
|-  
|-  
| 4 || Short low || short low tone || ends with q, b, d or g || {{xl|aq}}, {{xl|ab}}, {{xl|ad}}, {{xl|ag}}
| 4 || short low || (3ʔ) || ends with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'' or ''g'' || {{x|aq}} (''a duck'') || {{x|piq}} (''snapping turtle'')
|}   
|}   
[[File:say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq.mp3|thumb|none|say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq]]


Here are some more common examples of the seven tones:
==== Short tones ====
Let's look at the [[short tones]] first:


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning
! Pitch !! -h  !! -p !! -t !! -k
|-  
|-  
| High || {{xl|hiaf}} || there
| 8. high || {{x|ciah}} (''to eat'') || {{x|zap}} (''ten'') || {{x|lat}} (''strength'') || {{x|hak}} (''study'')
|-  
|-  
| Shouting || {{xl|zar}} || early
| 4. low || {{x|phaq}} (''to hit'') || {{x|ciab}} (''juice'') || {{x|pad}} (''eight'') || {{x|kag}} (''horn'')
|-
|}
| Low Falling || {{xl|zhaix}} || vegetable
 
|-
* high short tones end with ''h'' ({{w|glottal stop}}), ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'', which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant
| Curving || {{xl|hii}} || fish
* low short tones end with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'', and ''g'', which are the same stops as above, but signal the vowel is low pitch
|-
* ''{{x|iet}}'' and ''{{x|ek}}'', the short tones of ''ien'' and ''eng'', may sound more like ''et'' and ''iek''
| Basic || {{xl|si}} || is
 
|-
==== Long tones ====
|  ||  || 
Here are some common examples of the [[long tone]]s:
|-
 
| Short high || {{xl|ciah}} || to eat
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning
| Short low || {{xl|phaq}} || to hit
|-
| Short high || {{xl|hap}} || to close
|-  
|-  
| Short low || {{xl|ciab}} || to catch
| 1. high || {{x|ciaf}} || here
|-  
|-  
| Short high || {{xl|kut}} || slippery
| 7. basic || {{x|si}} || is
|-  
|-  
| Short low || {{xl|kud}} || bone
| 3. low-falling || {{x|khix}} || to go
|-  
|-  
| Short high || {{xl|lok}} || deer
| 2. shouting || {{x|goar}} || I; me
|-  
|-  
| Short low || {{xl|kog}} || country (''[[kokkaf]]'')
| 5. curving || {{x|ee}} || possessive particle
|}
|}


As you can see, the tone indicators (''f'', ''x'', ''r'', etc.) are placed immediately after the vowel. One exception is: when doubling the letter in the curving-up tone of compound vowels, the letter ''a'' takes precedence, even when it doesn't sit at the very end of the vowel. For example: {{xl|jidthaau}} & {{xl|na'aau}}.
The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, double the ''a'' if present, or else the last vowel letter. For example: ''{{x|cviaa}}'', ''{{x|laai}}'', ''{{x|ngg}}''.
 
==== Special vowels ====
For certain vowels in certain tones, there are a few substitutions/shortcuts: five for the shouting-out tone, plus two in the high tone. There is also a shortcut for the curving tone of ''ø''.


[[File:specialVowl.ogg]]
===== Special vowels =====
For certain vowels in certain tones, some ornamental substitutions/shortcuts are used. Refer to the [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|''Seven Tones'']] chart.
* '''{{x|y}}''',  '''{{x|w}}''': [[high tone]] of '''i''' and '''u'''
* '''{{x|ie}}''', '''{{x|uo}}''', '''{{x|ea}}''': [[shouting tone]] of '''i''', '''u''', '''e'''
* '''{{x|ae}}''', '''{{x|ao}}''': shortcuts for "a + ie" and "a + uo"
* '''{{x|øo}}''': shortcut for "øø"
* None of these apply with NFCs except: '''{{x|ym}}''', '''{{x|yn}}''', '''{{x|wn}}'''


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! Basic <br>Vowel !! Tonal <br>Vowel !! Special vowel<br>(shortcut)  !! Example || Meaning
! Syll. Tail !! Shortcut !! Example || Meaning
|-  
|-  
| ai  || air || ae  || {{xl|hae}} || sea
| if, ifm, ifn || {{x|y}}, {{x|ym}}, {{x|yn}} || {{x|ty}}, {{x|kym}}, {{x|cyn}} || pig, gold, very
|-  
|-  
| i  || ir || ie  || {{xl|lie}} || you
| uf, ufn || {{x|w}}, {{x|wn}} || {{x|titw}}, {{x|zhwn}} || spider, springtime
|-  
|-  
| u  || ur || uo || {{xl|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
| ir || {{x|ie}} || {{x|lie}} || you; ...
|-  
|-  
| e  || er || ea || {{xl|bea}} || horse
| ur || {{x|uo}} || {{x|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
|-  
|-  
| au  || aur || ao || {{xl|kao}} || dog
| er || {{x|ea}} || {{x|boea}} || tail
|-  
|-  
| i  || if || y || {{xl|y}} || he / she / it
| air || {{x|ae}} || {{x|hae}} || sea
|-  
|-  
| u  || uf || w || {{xl|wtiu}} || universe
| aur || {{x|ao}}  || {{x|kao}} || dog. nine
|-  
|-  
| ø  || øo || øo || {{xl|kiøo}} || bridge
| øø || {{x|øo}} || {{x|kiøo}} || bridge; eggplant
|}
|}


==== Tone sandhi ====
=== Syllable structure ===
[[File:Tone Circle.gif|right|frame|Taiwanese tones in isolation, and the changes they undergo when they precede another tone.]]
A syllable in Taiwanese is either:
* [initial] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
* [initial] + [v] + '''vowel'''
Anything in square brackets is optional. This means:
* a vowel is always required
* ''v'', ''-m'', ''-n'', and ''-ng'' are mutually exclusive
 
Also, we almost never find more than one nasal:
* e.g. ''{{x|man}}'' and ''{{x|mang}}'' don't exist (but ''{{x|ban}}'' and ''{{x|bang}}'' do exist)
* the only exceptions are the various tones of ''{{x|mng}}'' and ''{{x|nng}}''
 
== Tone sandhi ==
[[File:Tone Circles.png|right|frame|The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.]]


The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on where it is spoken in a sentence. This is referred to as [[tone sandhi]], which is extensive in Taiwanese.
The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This process is generally called [[tone sandhi]] ("sandhi" is from the Sanskrit word for "joining") and in Taiwanese the rules for it are extensive.


If a syllable is spoken in the middle of a word, phrase or sentence, it changes tone according to the Tone Circle diagram. If a syllable is spoken at the end of a phrase or sentence, it does not change tone. Most nouns do not change tone.
Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): ''{{x|aq}}''. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ''{{x|ar}}'', the tone becomes high-short: ''{{x|ah'ar}}''.  


These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.
More examples:
* ''jit'' (sun) + ''thaau'' (head) = ''{{x|jidthaau}}'' (the sun)
* ''cit'' (one) + ''sud'' (a bit) + ''ar'' = ''{{x|cidsut'ar}}'' (a little amount of something)


=== Three special symbols ===
Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in ''cidsut'ar {{x|png}}'' (a bit of rice), the ''ar'' changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ''{{x|ciah}} cidsut'ar png'', the verb ''ciah'' (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.


==== Apostrophe (') ====
You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.


When two syllables are put together, it may be necessary to
== Special punctuation marks ==
indicate a syllable boundary with an [[apostrophe]], given the rule that letters
must be grouped into a syllable starting from the right.


Example: '''of + kix''' vs '''og + ix'''
=== Apostrophe (') ===


Suppose we want to combine '''of''', meaning “black”, with '''kix''', meaning “mole”. We simply take the modified tone of the first syllable and follow it by the second syllable. The result is '''{{xl|okix}}''' (meaning “black mole”). Following the rules of MTL reading, '''kix''' is the longest possible syllable starting from the right. Thus the first syllable is the simple vowel '''o '''and the second syllable is '''kix''', and no apostrophe is needed.
When two syllables are put together, sometimes one letter might appear to be connected to the right syllable when it shouldn't be. The apostrophe is used to remove the ambiguity. For example:


If we combine '''og''' (“evil”) and '''ix''' (“intention”) without an apostrophe, we also get '''okix'''. By the rules of reading MTL, the final syllable appears to be '''kix'''. Therefore, we must insert an apostrophe ('''ok'ix''') to indicate that the last syllable is '''ix'''. Now we know the first syllable is '''ok''', which is the modified tone of '''og'''. The word '''{{xl|ok'ix}}''' means “evil intention”.
* {{x|of}} (烏; "black") + {{x|kix}} (痣;  "mole") = o'kix = {{x|okix}}
* {{x|og}} (惡; "evil") + {{x|ix}} (意; "intention") = {{x|ok'ix}}


==== Hyphen (-) ====
In MTL, we group the letters starting from the right into the longest syllable. So reading ''okix'', the second syllable is ''kix''. Then the first syllable is ''o''. There's no need to write ''o'kix''.


A [[hyphen]] is used to join two, or more isolated words to  
If you drop the apostrophe from ''ok'ix'', it would be ''okix'', so the apostrophe needs to stay.
make a new compound word with its own meaning.


Examples: '''[[Taioaan-laang]]''' (Taiwanese person); '''[[Bykog-kongbiin]]''' (American citizen).
=== Hyphen (-) ===


When reading these hyphenated words, the syllable directly
A hyphen is used to join two, or more isolated words to
before the hyphen must undergo tone change.
make a new compound word with its own meaning. When reading a hyphenated word, the syllable just before the hyphen should change tone. For example: {{XL|Taioaan}} + laang = {{XL|Taioaan-laang}} (Taiwanese person)
[[File:Taioaan, Taioaan-laang.mp3]]
The last syllable of ''Taioaan'' changes tone when spoken, so the compound word sounds like ''Taioanlaang''.


==== Grave accent (`) ====
=== Backquote (`) ===


When a word contains a [[Kiongjiok-huhø|grave accent]], all the syllables after  
When a word contains a [[backquote]], all the syllables after  
it are accented in a weaker, lower tone -- either a low-falling tone  
it are accented in a weaker, lower tone -- either a low-falling tone  
or a low stop. The tone of the syllable before the grave accent remains unchanged.
or a low stop. The tone of the syllable before the backquote remains unchanged.


Example:
Example:


* [[File:Kviaf`sie.ogg]] [[kviaf`sie]] ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  
* [[File:Kviaf`sie.mp3]] {{x|kviaf`sie}} ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  


* [[File:Kviasie.ogg]] [[kviasie]] ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.
* [[File:Kviasie.mp3]] {{x|kviasie}} ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.


== Further study ==
== Next steps ==
* [[Greeting Phrases in Taiwanese]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Taiwanese-English Dictionaries]]
* [[Introduction to Taiwanese Vocabulary]]
* [[Frequently-Used Syllables in Frequently-Used Words of Taiwanese Hokkien]]
** [[List of all initial consonants in Taiwanese Hokkien]]
** [[List of all finals in Taiwanese Hokkien]]


== External links ==
== External links ==
* [http://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html HTML version]
* [https://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html ''A Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''], version 1.0: 2017
* [https://wdcts.org/ WDCTS] - MLT Introduction, Useful Handout, Videos & References. (in Chinese)
* Modern Literal Taiwanese Foundation (MLTF). [https://learntaiwanese.org/english/mtl.html Modern Literal Taiwanese (MLT) Handbook]
* {{Textbook_1990}}


[[Category:Getting started]]
[[Category:Getting started]]
[[Category:Modern Literal Taiwanese]]

Latest revision as of 16:09, 25 July 2024

"Hello" in Taiwanese, written Lie hør!

Lie hør! Taiwanese is a beautiful and musical language spoken in Taiwan and by Taiwanese people around the world. This Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as the Modern Literal Taiwanese writing system, which we call MTL for "Modern Taiwanese Language".

Most speakers of Taiwanese aren't aware that there are several writing systems for the language. Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ), also known as Church Romanization, might be the most popular romanization, though the government is now promoting a similar system called Tâi-lô. We're going to use MTL here because we found it very useful while studying Taiwanese at the Washington DC Taiwanese School, and we think it could help you too. True, most Taiwanese speakers won't be able to read any of these systems, but they will probably understand you better because you learned one.

How to make a syllable

Let's learn how to write any syllable using the MLT alphabet. The three important parts of a syllable we will look at first are: starting consonant, vowel, and ending consonant. We will talk about tones later.

Initial consonants

A syllable can start with one of 18 initial consonants. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be more exotic. For now, you can just ignore the silent indicators (mainly f, x, r, v).

Consonants
Examples
MTL Approx. Example Meaning
p spin papaf father
ph pin phaq to hit
m Mimi mi noodle
b mumble baq meat
t stem tit straight
th Thomas theh to take
n neat nii year
l lima laang person
k ski kaf to add
kh key khix to go
h heap hii fish
g gaggle go five
c(i) gee ciaf here
ch(i) cheese chiaf car
s she / saw si is; yes
j vision / zeta jit sun; day
z yards zef this
zh Tsai (Ts'ai) zhaix vegetable

The p vs. b and k vs. g may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from muddy to plain to aspirated.

  • b and g are voiced: the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant
  • p, t, k are unvoiced, crisp but not aspirated
  • ph, th, kh, ch, and zh are aspirated, having a strong burst of breath

Vowels

A syllable in Taiwanese can't go without having a vowel. This chart, Seven Tones of Taiwanese, shows how to write any vowel in any tone. For now, just look at the basic tone, and the five categories: simple, compound, plus three categories ending in nasals.

Single vowels

These are the pure vowel sounds.

Vowels
Examples
MTL Example Meaning
a ma also; to scold
i si is; yes; ...
u u to have
e e to be able to; ...
o ho rain; to give; ...
ø tø at once; ...
m m not; will not
ng mng to ask
  • We saw m- earlier as a consonant, but here it's the vowel.
  • In fact, both m and ng are complete syllables and complete words.
  • We will see -m and -ng as nasal final consonants (NFCs).

Compound vowels

These vowels are a combination of multiple pure vowel sounds.

MTL Example Meaning
ai lai sharp
au au back
ia ia to spread
iu siu receive; accept; ...
iø biø temple
iau liau material/stuff
ui ui stomach
oa toa big
oe hoe meeting
oai hoai bad; rotten. see phørhoai

Vowel plus nasal final consonant

Several vowels can be capped with a nasal final consonant (NFC), either -m, -n, or -ng.

Final Example Meaning
am lam to mix
im akim aunt
iam liam to nag
an ban slow
in kin near
un tun dull
ien lien to practice
oan goan wish
ang bang dream
eng teng hard
ong gong dumb
iang liang bright
iong iong to use

Some pointers:

  • ien (from ia + n = ian): used to sound like "yan", then "yen", now usually "en"
  • eng (from e + ng): used to sound as written, now is a little more like "ieng", but not quite "ing"

Nasal vowels

These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels from the first two groups can be nasalized, indicated by the letter v (read like "you" in English but nasal), chosen because it looks like the Greek letter "nu" (ν). The word for nose is phvi, which also means "to smell".

MTL Example Meaning
va va filling (for dumplings etc.)
vi hvi ear
ve gve stiff
vo kiaugvo proud; arrogant; haughty
vai vai to carry on back
vau liengvau lotus root
via kvia classifier for luggage, clothes, events
viu sviu to think
viau gviaw itchy. see gviaugviaw (sensation of tickling; ticklish)
voa voa to exchange
voai svoai mango

Tones

Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by tone (e.g., all seven tones of si). Learning to speak and hear the tones of Taiwanese correctly is often difficult for beginners. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.

As you may have noticed from the Seven Tones chart, there are five long tones and two short tones:

  • f, x and r are silent tone indicators for long tones
  • short tones always end with a stop letter that tells both consonant and pitch
af, a, ax, ar, aa, ah, aq
# Tones Description MTL Example Animal
1 high level (55 or 44) f (silent) khaf (leg; foot) say (lion)
7 basic mid-level (33) default toa (big) chviu (elephant)
3 low falling somewhat downward (31) x (silent) khax (to knock) pax (leopard)
2 shouting sharply downward (51) r (silent) ar (仔) hor (tiger)
5 curving mid, downward, up (214) doubling of vowel gaau (extraordinary) hiim (bear)
8 short high (5ʔ) ends with h, p, t or k ah (a box) lok (deer)
4 short low (3ʔ) ends with q, b, d or g aq (a duck) piq (snapping turtle)
say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq

Short tones

Let's look at the short tones first:

Pitch -h -p -t -k
8. high ciah (to eat) zap (ten) lat (strength) hak (study)
4. low phaq (to hit) ciab (juice) pad (eight) kag (horn)
  • high short tones end with h (glottal stop), p, t and k, which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant
  • low short tones end with q, b, d, and g, which are the same stops as above, but signal the vowel is low pitch
  • iet and ek, the short tones of ien and eng, may sound more like et and iek

Long tones

Here are some common examples of the long tones:

Tone Example Meaning
1. high ciaf here
7. basic si is
3. low-falling khix to go
2. shouting goar I; me
5. curving ee possessive particle

The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, double the a if present, or else the last vowel letter. For example: cviaa, laai, ngg.

Special vowels

For certain vowels in certain tones, some ornamental substitutions/shortcuts are used. Refer to the Seven Tones chart.

Syll. Tail Shortcut Example Meaning
if, ifm, ifn y, ym, yn ty, kym, cyn pig, gold, very
uf, ufn w, wn titw, zhwn spider, springtime
ir ie lie you; ...
ur uo kuo (of time) long
er ea boea tail
air ae hae sea
aur ao kao dog. nine
øø øo kiøo bridge; eggplant

Syllable structure

A syllable in Taiwanese is either:

  • [initial] + vowel + [nasal final consonant]
  • [initial] + [v] + vowel

Anything in square brackets is optional. This means:

  • a vowel is always required
  • v, -m, -n, and -ng are mutually exclusive

Also, we almost never find more than one nasal:

  • e.g. man and mang don't exist (but ban and bang do exist)
  • the only exceptions are the various tones of mng and nng

Tone sandhi

The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.

The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This process is generally called tone sandhi ("sandhi" is from the Sanskrit word for "joining") and in Taiwanese the rules for it are extensive.

Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): aq. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ar, the tone becomes high-short: ah'ar.

More examples:

  • jit (sun) + thaau (head) = jidthaau (the sun)
  • cit (one) + sud (a bit) + ar = cidsut'ar (a little amount of something)

Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in cidsut'ar png (a bit of rice), the ar changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ciah cidsut'ar png, the verb ciah (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.

You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.

Special punctuation marks

Apostrophe (')

When two syllables are put together, sometimes one letter might appear to be connected to the right syllable when it shouldn't be. The apostrophe is used to remove the ambiguity. For example:

  • of (烏; "black") + kix (痣; "mole") = o'kix = okix
  • og (惡; "evil") + ix (意; "intention") = ok'ix

In MTL, we group the letters starting from the right into the longest syllable. So reading okix, the second syllable is kix. Then the first syllable is o. There's no need to write o'kix.

If you drop the apostrophe from ok'ix, it would be okix, so the apostrophe needs to stay.

Hyphen (-)

A hyphen is used to join two, or more isolated words to make a new compound word with its own meaning. When reading a hyphenated word, the syllable just before the hyphen should change tone. For example: Taioaan + laang = Taioaan-laang (Taiwanese person) The last syllable of Taioaan changes tone when spoken, so the compound word sounds like Taioanlaang.

Backquote (`)

When a word contains a backquote, all the syllables after it are accented in a weaker, lower tone -- either a low-falling tone or a low stop. The tone of the syllable before the backquote remains unchanged.

Example:

  • kviaf`sie ((v.) to freak someone out) - kviaf keeps its high tone but sie is pronounced with a weakened low tone.
  • kviasie ((adj.) scared of death) – kviaf is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while sie is pronounced as a shouting tone. Kiasi is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.

Next steps

External links

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