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[[File:Lie hør.mp3|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  
[[File:Lie hør.mp3|thumb|"Hello" in Taiwanese, written '''''[[Lie hør!]]''''']]  


'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taioan'oe|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as a writing system called [[Modern Taiwanese Language]] (MTL).  
'''''Li<u>e</u> hø<u>r</u>!''''' [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] is a beautiful and musical language spoken in [[Taioaan|Taiwan]] and by Taiwanese people around the world. This '''''Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''''' will provide you with a brief introduction to the spoken language as well as the [[Modern Literal Taiwanese]] writing system, which we call MTL for "Modern Taiwanese Language".


Most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware that there exist several ways to write it down. MTL and [[Taiwanese Romanization System]] both derive from ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), which had over 100,000 users in the mid-20th century. While no single system has been widely adopted (whether romanized or in [[Harnji|Han characters]]), MTL is a very useful tool for learning Taiwanese. Most Taiwanese speakers may not be able to read any of these systems but will understand you better because you used it.
Most speakers of Taiwanese aren't aware that there are several writing systems for the language. ''[[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]'' (POJ), also known as Church Romanization, might be the most popular romanization, though the government is now promoting a similar system called ''[[Tâi-lô]]''. We're going to use MTL here because we found it very useful while studying Taiwanese at the [[Washington DC Taiwanese School]], and we think it could help you too. True, most Taiwanese speakers won't be able to read any of these systems, but they will probably understand you better because you learned one.


== Phonology ==
== How to make a syllable ==
We will first introduce all of the phonetic sounds of Taiwanese, using the [[MTL alphabet]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be less familiar. In the examples, we have underlined indicators (mainly ''f'', ''r'', ''x'', ''v'') that are silent, which we will explain later.
Let's learn how to write any syllable using the [[MLT alphabet]]. The three important parts of a syllable we will look at first are: starting consonant, vowel, and ending consonant. We will talk about tones later.  


=== Initial consonants ===
=== Initial consonants ===
Here are the [[List of all initial consonants in MTL|18 initial consonants in MTL]], which come at the beginning of the syllable.
A syllable can start with one of [[List of all initial consonants in MTL|18 initial consonants]]. Some sounds have an approximation in English, while others may be more exotic. For now, you can just ignore the silent indicators (mainly ''f'', ''x'', ''r'', ''v'').


[[File:Initial consonants.mp3|thumb|none|Consonants]]
[[File:Initial_consonants.mp3|thumb|none|Consonants]]
[[File:conExp.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]
[[File:initial_consonant_examples.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]
{{Initial_consonants}}
{{Initial_consonants}}


The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
The ''p'' vs. ''b'' and ''k'' vs. ''g'' may be hard to differentiate at first. They are part of a three-way distinction, going from ''muddy'' to plain to [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]].  
* The muddy ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced, meaning the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant.
* ''b'' and ''g'' are voiced: the vocal cords vibrate along with the consonant
* The plain ''p'' and ''k'' (and ''t'') are unvoiced, not as aspirated as in English, but do have a distinct click or pop.
* ''p'', ''t'', ''k'' are unvoiced, crisp but not aspirated
* The aspirated consonants are composed of the plain symbol followed by ''h''. 
* ''ph'', ''th'', ''kh'', ''ch'', and ''zh'' are aspirated, having a strong burst of breath
 
Note that ''s'' and ''j'' appear twice: these are slightly different when followed by an ''i'' vs other vowels.


=== Vowels ===
=== Vowels ===
A syllable in Taiwanese can't go without having a vowel. [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|This chart, ''Seven Tones of Taiwanese'']], shows how to write any vowel in any tone. For now, just look at the basic tone, and the five categories: simple, compound, plus three categories ending in nasals.


==== Single vowels ====
==== Single vowels ====
These are the pure vowel sounds ({{w|monophthong}}s).
These are the {{w|pure vowel}} sounds.
 
[[File:a, i, u, e, o, ø, m, ng.mp3|thumb|none|Vowels]]
[[File:ma, si, u, e, ho, tø, m, mng.mp3|thumb|none|Examples]]


[[File:SimpleVowels.mp3]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| [[a]]  || {{xl|ka}} || to bite
| [[a]]  || {{x|ma}} || also; to scold
|-  
|-  
| [[i]]  || {{xl|h<u>v</u>i|hvi}} || ear
| [[i]]  || {{x|si}} || is; yes; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[u]]  || {{xl|u}} || to have  
| [[u]]  || {{x|u}} || to have
|-  
|-  
| [[e]]  || {{xl|ke}} || low
| [[e]]  || {{x|e}} || to be able to; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[o]]  || {{xl|lo}} || road
| [[o]]  || {{x|ho}} || rain; to give; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[ø]]  || {{xl|hø<u>r</u>|hør}} || good
| [[ø]]  || {{x|tø}} || at once; ...
|-  
|-  
| [[m]]  || {{xl|m}} || no
| [[m]]  || {{x|m}} || not; will not
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|ng}} || {{xl|hng}} || far
| {{x|ng}} || {{x|mng}} || to ask
|}   
|}   


We saw ''m'' earlier as a consonant, but it can stand alone as a vowel. In fact, both ''m'' and ''ng'' are complete syllables and complete words. We will see them both again later as final consonants.
* We saw ''m-'' earlier as a consonant, but here it's the vowel.
* In fact, both ''m'' and ''ng'' are complete syllables and complete words.  
* We will see -''m'' and -''ng'' as nasal final consonants (NFCs).


==== Compound vowels ====
==== Compound vowels ====


These vowels are a combination of two (or three) pure vowel sounds.  
These vowels are a combination of multiple pure vowel sounds.  
 
[[File:CompoundVowels.mp3]]


[[File:ai, au, ia, iu, iø, iau, ui, oa, oe, oai.mp3]]
[[File:lai, au, ia, siu, biø, liau, ui, toa, hoe, phørhoai.mp3]]
{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| ai || {{xl|lai}} || sharp  
| ai || {{x|lai}} || sharp  
|-  
|-  
| au || {{xl|au}} || back  
| au || {{x|au}} || back  
|-  
|-  
| ia || {{xl|ia}} || to spread  
| ia || {{x|ia}} || to spread  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|iu}} || {{xl|chviu}} || elephant
| {{x|iu}} || {{x|siu}} || receive; accept; ...
|-  
|-  
| iø || {{xl|kiøo}} || [[Kiøo (kauthofng)|bridge]]
| iø || {{x|biø}} || temple
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iau}} || {{xl|liau}} || material/stuff  
| {{x|iau}} || {{x|liau}} || material/stuff  
|-  
|-  
| ui || {{xl|ui}} || stomach  
| ui || {{x|ui}} || stomach  
|-  
|-  
| oa || {{xl|toa}} || big  
| oa || {{x|toa}} || big  
|-  
|-  
| {{xl|oe}} || {{xl|hoe}} || meeting
| {{x|oe}} || {{x|hoe}} || meeting
|-  
|-  
| oai || {{xl|koaix}} || weird
| oai || {{x|hoai}} || bad; rotten. see ''{{x|phørhoai}}''
|}
|}


==== Nasal vowels ====
==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====


These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels  
Several vowels can be capped with a nasal final consonant (NFC), either -''m'', -''n'', or -''ng''.
have a nasal form. A ''v'' is placed in front of the vowel to designate it.  


[[File:FrontNasalV3.mp3]]
[[File:am, im, iam, an, in, un, ien, oan, ang, eng, ong, iang, iong.mp3]]
[[File:lam, akim, liam, ban, kin, tun, lien, goan, bang, teng, gong, liang, iong.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL  !! Example !! Meaning  
! Final !! Example !! Meaning
|-
| {{x|am}} || {{x|lam}} || to mix
|-
| im || {{x|akim}} || aunt
|-  
|-  
| va || {{xl|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
| {{x|iam}} || {{x|liam}} || to nag
|-  
|-  
| {{x|vi}} || [[hvi]] || ear
| {{x|an}} || {{x|ban}} || slow
|-  
|-  
| ve || {{xl|gve}} || stiff
| {{x|in}} || {{x|kin}} || near
|-  
|-  
| vo || {{xl|gvo}} || to comprehend
| {{x|un}} || {{x|tun}} || dull
|-  
|-  
| vai || {{xl|vai}} || to carry on back
| ien || {{x|lien}} || to practice
|-  
|-  
| vau || {{xl|gvau}} || [[liengvau|lotus root]]
| {{x|oan}} || {{x|goan}} || wish
|-  
|-  
| {{x|via}} || {{xl|thviaf}} || to listen
| ang || {{x|bang}} || dream
|-  
|-  
| {{x|viu}} || {{xl|sviu}} || to think
| {{x|eng}} || {{x|teng}} || hard
|-  
|-  
| viau || {{xl|gviaugviaw}} || itchy
| {{x|ong}} || {{x|gong}} || dumb
|-  
|-  
| voa || {{xl|voa}} || to exchange
| {{x|iang}} || {{x|liang}} || bright
|-  
|-  
| voai || {{xl|kvoaimngg}} || to close a door
| {{x|iong}} || {{x|iong}} || to use
|}
|}
Some pointers:
* '''ien''' (from '''ia''' + '''n''' = '''ian'''): used to sound like "yan", then "yen", now usually "en"
* '''eng''' (from '''e''' + '''ng'''): used to sound as written, now is a little more like "ieng", but not quite "ing"


==== Vowel plus nasal final consonant ====
==== Nasal vowels ====


The following ''finals'' are composed of vowels capped with ''m'', ''n'', or ''ng'' serving as a nasal final consonant (NFC).
These vowel sounds are made using your nose. Most vowels from the first two groups can be nasalized, indicated by the letter ''[[v]]'' (read like "you" in English but nasal), chosen because it looks like the Greek letter "nu" ({{wt|ν}}). The word for nose is ''{{x|phvi}}'', which also means "to smell".


[[File:RearNasal.mp3]]
[[File:Front_nasal_new.mp3]]
[[File:va, hvi, gve, kiaugvo, vai, liengvau, kvia, sviu, gviaw, voa, svoai.mp3]]


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning
! MTL !! Example !! Meaning  
|-
| {{x|am}} || {{x|lam}} || to mix
|-
| im || {{x|a'kim}} || aunt
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iam}} || {{xl|liam}} || to nag
| va || {{x|va}} || filling (for dumplings etc.)
|-  
|-  
| {{x|an}} || {{xl|ban}} || slow
| {{x|vi}} || {{x|hvi}} || ear
|-  
|-  
| {{x|in}} || {{xl|kin}} || near
| ve || {{x|gve}} || stiff
|-  
|-  
| {{x|un}} || {{xl|tun}} || dull
| vo || {{x|kiaugvo}} || proud; arrogant; haughty
|-  
|-  
| ien || {{xl|lien}} || to practice
| vai || {{x|vai}} || to carry on back
|-  
|-  
| {{x|oan}} || {{xl|goan}} || wish
| vau || {{x|liengvau}} || lotus root
|-  
|-  
| ang || {{xl|bang}} || dream
| {{x|via}} || {{x|kvia}} || classifier for luggage, clothes, events
|-  
|-  
| {{x|eng}} || {{xl|teng}} || hard
| {{x|viu}} || {{x|sviu}} || to think
|-  
|-  
| {{x|ong}} || {{xl|gong}} || dumb
| viau || {{x|gviaw}} || itchy. see {{x|gviaugviaw}} (sensation of tickling; ticklish)
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iang}} || {{xl|liang}} || bright
| voa || {{x|voa}} || to exchange
|-  
|-  
| {{x|iong}} || {{xl|iong}} || to use
| voai || {{x|svoai}} || mango
|}
|}
Notes: ''ien'' is often spoken without the ''i''. Also, ''eng'' sounds similar to the first part of "English" (''{{XL|Engbuun}}'').
=== Syllabic structure ===
A syllable in Taiwanese follows one of these two patterns:
* [consonant] + [nasal] '''vowel'''
* [consonant] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
As a bare minimum, only a vowel is required. The items in the [[koat'hoo|brackets]] are optional. We will explain below how every syllable has a distinct tone.
A word can be formed with one or more syllables, but two syllables is most typical.


=== Tones ===
=== Tones ===


Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by [[sviatiau|tone]]. Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for an English speaker. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.
Taiwanese is a tonal language which means that pitch is used to convey meaning. Many words are differentiated solely by tone (e.g., all seven tones of ''{{x|si}}''). Learning to speak and hear the [[tones of Taiwanese]] correctly is often difficult for beginners. With practice you will be able to hear and speak them. Again most speakers of Taiwanese are not aware of the different tones but they can all understand you when you pronounce them correctly.


[[File:Tones1235784.mp3|thumb|none|''af'', ''ar'', ''ax'', ''aa'', ''a'', ''ah'', ''aq'']]
As you may have noticed from the ''Seven Tones'' chart, there are five long tones and two short tones:
* ''f'', ''x'' and ''r'' are silent tone indicators for long tones
* short tones always end with a stop letter that tells both consonant and pitch


Taiwanese has seven tones: five long tones and two short tones.
[[File:af,_a,_ax,_ar,_aa,_ah,_aq.mp3|thumb|none|{{x|af}}, a, ax, {{x|ar}}, aa, {{x|ah}}, {{x|aq}}]]


{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example
! # !! Tones !! Description !! MTL !! Example !! Animal
|-  
|-  
| 1 || High || level || [[f]] (silent) || {{x|khaf}} (''leg''; ''foot'')
| 1 || high || level (55 or 44) || [[f]] (silent) || {{x|khaf}} (''leg''; ''foot'') || {{x|say}} (''lion'')
|-  
|-  
| 2 || Shouting || sharply downward || [[r]] (silent)|| {{x|ar}} (仔)
| 7 || basic || mid-level (33) || default || {{x|toa}} (''big'') || {{x|chviu}} (''elephant'')
|-  
|-  
| 3 || Low Falling || somewhat downward || [[x]] (silent)|| {{x|extaxng}} (''to be able to'')
| 3 || low falling || somewhat downward (31) || [[x]] (silent) || {{x|khax}} (''to knock'') || {{x|pax}} (''leopard'')
|-  
|-  
| 5 || Curving || mid, downward, then upward  || doubling of vowel || {{x|gaau}} (''extraordinary'')  
| 2 || shouting || sharply downward (51) || [[r]] (silent)|| {{x|ar}} ({{wt|仔}}) || {{x|hor}} (''tiger'')
|-  
|-  
| 7 || Basic || mid-level || default || {{x|toa}}
| 5 || curving || mid, downward, up (214) || doubling of vowel || {{x|gaau}} (''extraordinary'') || {{x|hiim}} (''bear'')
|-  
|-  
| 8 || Short high || || ends with ''h'', ''p'', ''t'' or ''k''  || {{xl|ah}} (''a box'')
| 8 || short high || (5ʔ) || ends with ''h'', ''p'', ''t'' or ''k''  || {{x|ah}} (''a box'') || {{x|lok}} (''deer'')
|-  
|-  
| 4 || Short low || || ends with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'' or ''g'' || {{xl|aq}} (''a duck'')
| 4 || short low || (3ʔ) || ends with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'' or ''g'' || {{x|aq}} (''a duck'') || {{x|piq}} (''snapping turtle'')
|}   
|}   
[[File:say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq.mp3|thumb|none|say, chviu, pax, hor, hiim, lok, piq]]


The letters ''f'', ''r'' and ''x'' are silent tone indicators for long tones. Short tones always end with a stop (the ending letter tells both consonant and tone).
==== Short tones ====
Let's look at the [[short tones]] first:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Pitch !! -h  !! -p !! -t !! -k
|-
| 8. high || {{x|ciah}} (''to eat'') || {{x|zap}} (''ten'') || {{x|lat}} (''strength'') || {{x|hak}} (''study'')
|-
| 4. low || {{x|phaq}} (''to hit'') || {{x|ciab}} (''juice'') || {{x|pad}} (''eight'') || {{x|kag}} (''horn'')
|}
 
* high short tones end with ''h'' ({{w|glottal stop}}), ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'', which are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant
* low short tones end with ''q'', ''b'', ''d'', and ''g'', which are the same stops as above, but signal the vowel is low pitch
* ''{{x|iet}}'' and ''{{x|ek}}'', the short tones of ''ien'' and ''eng'', may sound more like ''et'' and ''iek''


==== Long tones ====
==== Long tones ====
Here are some common examples of the [[long tone]]s:
Here are some common examples of the [[long tone]]s:


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable sortable"  
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning  
! Tone !! Example !! Meaning  
|-  
|-  
| High || {{xl|hiaf}} || there
| 1. high || {{x|ciaf}} || here
|-  
|-  
| Shouting || {{xl|zar}} || early
| 7. basic || {{x|si}} || is
|-  
|-  
| Low Falling || {{xl|zhaix}} || vegetable
| 3. low-falling || {{x|khix}} || to go
|-  
|-  
| Curving || {{xl|hii}} || fish
| 2. shouting || {{x|goar}} || I; me
|-  
|-  
| Basic || {{xl|si}} || is
| 5. curving || {{x|ee}} || possessive particle
|}
|}


The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, normally its last letter is repeated. But when there is an ''a'', it is the one repeated, even when it doesn't sit at the very end of the vowel. For example: {{x|gaau}}, {{xl|jidthaau}}, {{xl|na'aau}}.
The tone indicators always come to the right of the vowel, with one exception. To indicate the curving tone of a compound vowel, double the ''a'' if present, or else the last vowel letter. For example: ''{{x|cviaa}}'', ''{{x|laai}}'', ''{{x|ngg}}''.


==== Short tones ====
===== Special vowels =====
Here are some examples of the [[short tone]]s:
For certain vowels in certain tones, some ornamental substitutions/shortcuts are used. Refer to the [[Media:Seven Tones of Taiwanese.pdf|''Seven Tones'']] chart.
* '''{{x|y}}''',  '''{{x|w}}''': [[high tone]] of '''i''' and '''u'''
* '''{{x|ie}}''', '''{{x|uo}}''', '''{{x|ea}}''': [[shouting tone]] of '''i''', '''u''', '''e'''
* '''{{x|ae}}''', '''{{x|ao}}''': shortcuts for "a + ie" and "a + uo"
* '''{{x|øo}}''': shortcut for "øø"
* None of these apply with NFCs except: '''{{x|ym}}''', '''{{x|yn}}''', '''{{x|wn}}'''


{| class="wikitable"  
{| class="wikitable"  
! Pitch !! -h  !! -p !! -t !! -k
! Syll. Tail !! Shortcut !! Example || Meaning
|-  
|-  
| high || {{xl|ciah}} (''to eat'') || {{xl|ap}} (''a box'') || {{xl|lat}} (''strength'') || {{xl|bak}} (''ink'')
| if, ifm, ifn || {{x|y}}, {{x|ym}}, {{x|yn}} || {{x|ty}}, {{x|kym}}, {{x|cyn}} || pig, gold, very
|-  
|-  
| low || {{xl|phaq}} (''to hit'') || {{xl|ciab}} (''juice'') || {{xl|kad}} (''knot'') || {{xl|kag}} (''horn'')
| uf, ufn || {{x|w}}, {{x|wn}} || {{x|titw}}, {{x|zhwn}} || spider, springtime
|}
 
The ending letter of a short tone tells both final consonant and pitch. Looking at the high short tones first: the ''h'' is a {{w|glottal stop}}, then the ''p'', ''t'' and ''k'' are stops sounding similar to how they're used as an initial consonant. The low short tones are then the same as the corresponding high tone version but in lower pitch.
 
==== Special vowels ====
For certain vowels in certain tones, there are a few substitutions/shortcuts: five for the shouting-out tone, plus two in the high tone. There is also a shortcut for the curving tone of ''ø''.
 
[[File:specialVowl.mp3|thumb|none|the five special shouting-tone vowels: ''ae'',
''ie'', ''uo'', ''ea'', ''ao'']]
[[File:special_vowels_high.mp3|thumb|none|two high-tone shortcuts (''y'', ''w'') and curving tone of ''ø'' (øo)]]
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Basic <br>Vowel !!  Tonal <br>Vowel !! Special vowel<br>(shortcut)  !! Example || Meaning
|-
| ai  || air || ae  || {{xl|hae}} || sea
|-
| i  || ir || {{x|ie}} || {{xl|lie}} || you
|-  
|-  
| u  || ur || {{x|uo}}  || {{xl|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
| ir || {{x|ie}}  || {{x|lie}} || you; ...
|-  
|-  
| e  || er || {{x|ea}}  || {{xl|bea}} || horse
| ur || {{x|uo}}  || {{x|kuo}} || (''of time'') long
|-  
|-  
| au  || aur || {{x|ao}}  || {{xl|kao}} || dog
| er || {{x|ea}}  || {{x|boea}} || tail
|-  
|-  
| i  || if || {{x|y}}  || {{xl|y}} || he / she / it
| air || {{x|ae}}  || {{x|hae}} || sea
|-  
|-  
| u  || uf || w || {{xl|wtiu}} || universe
| aur || {{x|ao}}  || {{x|kao}} || dog. nine
|-  
|-  
| ø  || øø || {{x|øo}} || {{xl|kiøo}} || bridge
| øø || {{x|øo}} || {{x|kiøo}} || bridge; eggplant
|}
|}


The final part of an MTL syllable contains the vowel, any consonant endings, and tone. For a complete listing, see: [[List of all finals in Taiwanese Hokkien|List of all finals in MTL]]
=== Syllable structure ===
A syllable in Taiwanese is either:
* [initial] + '''vowel''' + [nasal final consonant]
* [initial] + [v] + '''vowel'''
Anything in square brackets is optional. This means:
* a vowel is always required
* ''v'', ''-m'', ''-n'', and ''-ng'' are mutually exclusive
 
Also, we almost never find more than one nasal:  
* e.g. ''{{x|man}}'' and ''{{x|mang}}'' don't exist (but ''{{x|ban}}'' and ''{{x|bang}}'' do exist)
* the only exceptions are the various tones of ''{{x|mng}}'' and ''{{x|nng}}''


==== Tone sandhi ====
== Tone sandhi ==
[[File:Tone Circle.gif|right|frame|Taiwanese tones in isolation, and the changes they undergo when they precede another tone.]]
[[File:Tone Circles.png|right|frame|The seven tones, and how they change due to tone sandhi.]]


The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on where it is spoken in a sentence. This is referred to as [[tone sandhi]], which is extensive in Taiwanese.
The basic unit of speech is the syllable, which can change tone depending on its environment. This process is generally called [[tone sandhi]] ("sandhi" is from the Sanskrit word for "joining") and in Taiwanese the rules for it are extensive.


If a syllable is spoken in the middle of a word, phrase or sentence, it changes tone according to the Tone Circle diagram. If a syllable is spoken at the end of a phrase or sentence, it does not change tone. Most nouns do not change tone.
Generally, a syllable inside of a word changes tone according to the Tone Circles. For example, the single-syllable word for "duck" (bird): ''{{x|aq}}''. Its original tone is low-short. After adding the suffix ''{{x|ar}}'', the tone becomes high-short: ''{{x|ah'ar}}''.  


These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.
More examples:
* ''jit'' (sun) + ''thaau'' (head) = ''{{x|jidthaau}}'' (the sun)
* ''cit'' (one) + ''sud'' (a bit) + ''ar'' = ''{{x|cidsut'ar}}'' (a little amount of something)


=== Three special symbols ===
Inside a sentence, the last syllable of most nouns don't change tone. But if that noun is actually used as an adjective, it will. For example, in ''cidsut'ar {{x|png}}'' (a bit of rice), the ''ar'' changes to high tone when spoken. Furthermore, in ''{{x|ciah}} cidsut'ar png'', the verb ''ciah'' (to eat) changes to low-short tone when spoken.


==== Apostrophe (') ====
You may have realized by now that tone change is connected to grammar. These tone changes are probably by far the hardest part of learning Taiwanese.


When two syllables are put together, it may be necessary to
== Special punctuation marks ==
indicate a syllable boundary with an [[apostrophe]], given the rule that letters
must be grouped into a syllable starting from the right.


Example: '''{{x|of}} + {{x|kix}}''' vs '''{{x|og}} + {{x|ix}}'''
=== Apostrophe (') ===


Suppose we want to combine '''[[oseg|of]]''', meaning “black”, with '''[[okix|kix]]''', meaning “mole”. We simply take the modified tone of the first syllable and follow it by the second syllable. The result is '''{{xl|okix}}''' (meaning “black mole”). Following the rules of MTL reading, '''kix''' is the longest possible syllable starting from the right. Thus the first syllable is the simple vowel '''o '''and the second syllable is '''kix''', and no apostrophe is needed.
When two syllables are put together, sometimes one letter might appear to be connected to the right syllable when it shouldn't be. The apostrophe is used to remove the ambiguity. For example:


If we combine '''og''' (“evil”) and '''ix''' (“intention”) without an apostrophe, we also get '''okix'''. By the rules of reading MTL, the final syllable appears to be '''kix'''. Therefore, we must insert an apostrophe ('''ok'ix''') to indicate that the last syllable is '''ix'''. Now we know the first syllable is '''ok''', which is the modified tone of '''og'''. The word '''{{xl|ok'ix}}''' means “evil intention”.
* {{x|of}} (烏; "black") + {{x|kix}} (痣;  "mole") = o'kix = {{x|okix}}
* {{x|og}} (惡; "evil") + {{x|ix}} (意; "intention") = {{x|ok'ix}}


==== Hyphen (-) ====
In MTL, we group the letters starting from the right into the longest syllable. So reading ''okix'', the second syllable is ''kix''. Then the first syllable is ''o''. There's no need to write ''o'kix''.


A [[hyphen]] is used to join two, or more isolated words to  
If you drop the apostrophe from ''ok'ix'', it would be ''okix'', so the apostrophe needs to stay.
make a new compound word with its own meaning.


Examples: '''[[Taioaan-laang]]''' (Taiwanese person); '''[[Bykog-kongbiin]]''' (American citizen).
=== Hyphen (-) ===


When reading these hyphenated words, the syllable directly
A hyphen is used to join two, or more isolated words to
before the hyphen must undergo tone change.
make a new compound word with its own meaning. When reading a hyphenated word, the syllable just before the hyphen should change tone. For example: {{XL|Taioaan}} + laang = {{XL|Taioaan-laang}} (Taiwanese person)
[[File:Taioaan, Taioaan-laang.mp3]]
The last syllable of ''Taioaan'' changes tone when spoken, so the compound word sounds like ''Taioanlaang''.


==== Backquote (`) ====
=== Backquote (`) ===


When a word contains a [[backquote]], all the syllables after  
When a word contains a [[backquote]], all the syllables after  
Line 290: Line 302:
Example:
Example:


* [[File:Kviaf`sie.mp3]] [[kviaf`sie]] ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  
* [[File:Kviaf`sie.mp3]] {{x|kviaf`sie}} ((v.) ''to freak someone out'') - ''kviaf'' keeps its high tone but ''sie'' is pronounced with a weakened low tone.  


* [[File:Kviasie.mp3]] [[kviasie]] ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.
* [[File:Kviasie.mp3]] {{x|kviasie}} ((adj.) ''scared of death'') – ''kviaf'' is pronounced with normal tone change from high to basic while ''sie'' is pronounced as a shouting tone. ''{{w|Kiasi}}'' is Hokkien phrase that describes the attitude of being overly afraid or timid.


== Further study ==
== Next steps ==
* [[Greeting Phrases in Taiwanese]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Practical Taiwanese Conversation]]
* [[Taiwanese-English Dictionaries]]
* [[Introduction to Taiwanese Vocabulary]]
* [[Frequently-Used Syllables in Frequently-Used Words of Taiwanese Hokkien|Frequently-Used Syllables in Frequently-Used Words]]


== External links ==
== External links ==
* [http://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html HTML version]
* [https://learntaiwanese.org/Beginner's%20Guide%20to%20Taiwanese.html ''A Beginner's Guide to Taiwanese''], version 1.0: 2017
* [https://wdcts.org/ WDCTS] - MLT Introduction, Useful Handout, Videos & References. (in Chinese)
* Modern Literal Taiwanese Foundation (MLTF). [https://learntaiwanese.org/english/mtl.html Modern Literal Taiwanese (MLT) Handbook]
* {{Textbook_1990}}


[[Category:Getting started]]
[[Category:Getting started]]
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